Kiến thức phi chính thống và tiềm năng thay đổi thái độ và thế giới quan của người học: Nghiên cứu ở một lớp học lịch sử Hoa Kỳ
Kỷ yếu điện tử Hội thảo Quốc gia Nghiên cứu liên ngành về Ngôn ngữ và Giảng dạy
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SUBJUGATED KNOWLEDGE AND THE POTENTIALS TO FOSTER
CHANGES IN STUDENTS‟ ATTITUDES TOWARDS KNOWLEDGE
AND THEIR WORLD VIEWS: A CASE STUDY IN AN AMERICAN
HISTORY CLASS
Cao Le Thanh Hai
University of Foreign Languages, Hue University
Abstract
The concept of subjugated knowledge suggested by Foucault (1980) has been
rigorously studied and applied by educators and scholars across disciplines in an effort
to devise a transformative education approach that embraces multifaceted nature of
knowledge, and simultaneously challenge the authority of the dominant epistemology.
This paper presents the preliminary results of an experimental study in an American
History class, in which subjugated knowledge is incorporated with an attempt to
enable students to ‗think differently‘ and to question the reality constructed in
mainstream history textbooks. Findings reveal that regardless of the initial difficulties
in familiarizing themselves with the concept and the practice, students are
enthusiastically engaged throughout the process and signs of changes (though still
modest) have been identified in the analysis of their final papers.
Keywords
subjugated knowledge, attitudes, different ways of thinking, epistemology, history
1. Introduction
Approaches to pedagogical practices have always been at the forefront in education,
especially in the humanities and social science. However, as indicated in the diagram of the
educational triangle by Jean Houssaye (1988), no matter what approach is applied; the
teacher, the student and the knowledge are always at the center. With regard to the two former
poles, i.e. the teacher and the student, perhaps the most fundamental change has been the shift
from teacher-centered to student-centered approach which embraces students‘ role and
authority in the classroom. The third pole, knowledge, has also witnessed a paradigm shift
with the emergence of an interdisciplinary approach with an integrated, interdisciplinary
curriculum linking a variety of learning subjects as they are related to the topics of integrated
curriculum units. The emphasis on connecting and synthesizing information around topics of
interest to the students provides favorable conditions for the acquisition of knowledge from
different disciplines through congruous concepts and ideas (Bar-Yam et al., 2002).
There are important implications for the preparation of students to navigate and function
productively in a world with diverse populations, different economic conditions, multitudes of
cultural, religious and ethnic groups, and a vast array of other different factors. Furthermore,
it is highly beneficial to begin early in the educational process to organize learning around
problem solving, critical thinking and more importantly, the transformation of students‘
attitudes and behaviors towards knowledge and themselves. In particular, education has to be
geared towards providing learners with an environment in which norms are contested, and
prior schemata is deconstructed to make room for the remaking of the self. This begs the
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question of dismantling the sedimented and dominant epistemology with the introduction of
different bodies of knowledge including subjugated knowledge.
The purpose of this paper is twofold, yet pretty modest. It is meant to present some initial
outcomes of an on-going effort from the researcher‘s part in reshaping the dynamics in her
own pedagogical practices/approaches. As it draws from and builds upon a number of existing
forays into the use of Foucault‘s later work to think differently (penserautrement) about
teaching and learning (Allan, 1999; Butin, 2006Chokr, 2009; Leask, 2011) among others;
what is offered here can only be some possibilities and starting points, provocations rather
than firm proposals. As a result, the paper is also geared towards receiving contributions and
criticism for better implications in the long run. Ultimately, it seeks the answer to the
following question: What are the potentials of subjugated knowledge in teaching and learning;
and particularly, what is the role of subjugated knowledge in changing students‘ outlook?
2. Theoretical framework
2.1. Subjugated knowledge
When Foucault (1980) considered the relationship between power and truth, he described
subjugated knowledge as a whole set of knowledges that have been disqualified as
inadequate to their task or insufficiently elaborated: naive knowledges, located low down
on the hierarchy beneath the required level of cognition or scientificity (pp. 81-82).
As knowledge is the foundation on which we create our reality and identity, which would
involve a view of knowledge as games of truth, and in relation to this ‗the collapse of
objective meaning leaving us free to create our own lives and ourselves‘ (Code, 2007, p.173).
This might also involve the recovery of subjugated knowledges and thinking ‗tactically about
the multiple effects of texts and classroom engagements‘ (Code, 2007, p.69) and drawing out
and making ‗visible subjugated meanings and unsettle and open up to troubling those
meanings that inscribe the normative‘. At the same time we must come to see and understand
past subjects differently, by activating counter-memories. That is, a struggle against collective
forgetting particularly in relation to social injustices. This might also involve a focus on the
writerliness of texts and ‗de-naturalizing our habitual economy of reading‘ and ‗the
consumerist model of reading‘ (Zalloua, 2004, p. 239). Such critique enables us to recognise
that the things, values, and events that make up our present experience ‗have been
constituted historically, discursively, practically‘ (Ball, 2018 p.4).
This is a form of ‗combative‘ or guerrilla pluralism‘ in which there is no epistemic innocence
(Medina, 2011, p.30). What the guerrilla pluralism of the Foucaultian genealogical method
can help produce is epistemic insurrections that have to be constantly renewed and remain
always ongoing in order to keep producing epistemic friction. (Medina, 2011, p.33).
‗Dislocation‘ and ‗decoding‘, as Chokr (2009, p.62) puts it, are necessary to place ‗in
abeyance the propositions and assumptions underlying and governing understanding and
behaviour‘. To reiterate, this is not an abdication of truth but rather a self-conscious
engagement in the games of truth, destabilising truth rather than learning it, historising
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excellence and beauty rather than appreciating it - ‗a commitment to uncertainty‘ (Youdell,
2011).
In other words, Foucault, as a philosopher of contestation and difference, seeks to undermine
self-evidence and open up spaces for acting and thinking differently about our relation
to ourselves and to others and identify and refuse and transgress the horizon of silent
objectification within which we are articulated. Underlying the philosophy of subjugated
knowledge is also the resurrection of different bodies of knowledge that have been
marginalized either in the course of history and time.
2.2. Subjugated knowledge and its implications in the classroom setting
The work of Michel Foucault offers one of the most effective ways of naming, tracking, and
developing multiple modes of resistance, as well as ways of devising a model of education
which challenges the status quo of the conventional system. Drawing on the later works of
Foucault and forays into the application of subjugated knowledge, Ball (2018) encapsulates
the ethos of Foucault‘s philosophy in a model of education that has the capacity of ―fostering
a learning environment that encourages experimentation.‖ Here, according to Ball, the
classroom is an ethical space, a political space, and a concrete space of freedom. The goal,
according to Ball, ―is to create a space within which it is possible to begin to confront and
reimagine the historically sedimented questions and problem(atizations) through which we
address the world‖ (2019, p.12). That is, an environment with a curriculum within which we
can re-constitute our present – opening up a room, understood as a room of concrete freedom,
that is possible transformation‘ (Foucault 1972, p. 5, as cited in Ball, 2018).
Second, according to Ball, the goal of incorporating subjugated knowledge is also to enable
the development of an awareness of one‘s current condition as defined and constructed by the
given culture and historical moment. What this means is to bring learners to the awareness
that what they conceive as reality is, in fact, orchestrated by the culture and the time during
which they exist; and that this reality should be dismantled to make room for other versions of
reality.
Third, such an education environment should encourage an attitude of critique with a focus on
the production of particular sorts of dispositions that would be valued and fostered, made
explicit (questions of subjectivity) – like skepticism, detachment, outrage, intolerance and
tolerance. This would involve the valuing and facilitating both what Olssen (2009, as cited in
Ball, 2018 calls ‗difference‘, as the basis of ‗thin‘ community, and audacity and fearlessness.
Conceived and practiced in this way education becomes an exploration and mapping of limits,
and testing and crossing them when possible – a set of multiple transgressions that allow
‗individuals to peer over the edge of their limits, but also confirms the impossibility of
removing them‘ Ball, 2018, p.18).
Such experiences have ‗the function of wrenching the subject from itself, of seeing to it that
the subject is no longer itself, or that it is brought to its annihilation or its dissolution. This is a
project of desubjectivation‘ (Foucault 2000,p. 241). This is a sequence of moments, openings,
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spaces in which unlearning is possible – an exploration of ethical heterotopias, real and
unreal, where difference is affirmed, ‗a sort of simultaneously mythic and real contestation of
the space in which we live‘ (Mahmood, 2011, p.48). In relation to this first and foremost,
students must be recognized as ethical beings capable of reflection, decision-making and
responsibility for their identity and their social relations. That is to say, ‗ethical self formation
as moral pedagogy allows for the maintenance and production of the learners‘ freedom‘
(Infinito, 2003 p.68). In a similar way, Sicilia-Camacho &Fernández-Balboa (2009, p.458), as
cited in Bar-Yam et al., 2002recast critical pedagogy in Foucauldian terms and assert that,
‗[O]ur version of CP [critical pedagogy] seeks the construction of personal-pedagogical-
political ethics while acknowledging the legitimacy of different ‗pedagogical games‘ and
―regimes of truth‘. Likewise, Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, bell hooks, Rey Chow and other
women of color practicing cultural studies have extended the cultural studies notion of
Otherness as ―affirmation of otherness and negation of metadiscourse‖ Bar-Yam et al., 2002
This study employed the three elements of Foucault‘s ‗philosophical ethos‘, i.e. experiment,
awareness and critique as these have been adopted across disciplines in the humanities and
social sciences, especially in cultural studies, feminism and other areas. Foucault‘s critique
has been proven to have positively affected students‘ learning outcomes. Moreover, the
capacity of activating counter-narratives and understanding the past differently which is
inherent in his philosophy creates a perfect fit for a course in history, the subject in this study.
3. Methodology
The method utilized in this study is qualitative, with the combination of classroom
observation and text analysis as means of data collection.
Led by the philosophical tenets inherent in Foucault‘s critique of education (1980), the
researcher designed a course that embraces the concepts of freedom, awareness, and critique
along with the incorporation of subjugated knowledge. The course spanned over the second
semester of the fiscal year 2019-2020, during which two textbooks were used. Students were
notified of the purpose of the course prior to the beginning of the semester.
Over the first half of the semester, students participating in the class were responsible for
reading, presenting and discussing issues in the text American History (11th edition) by Alan
Brinkley, a mainstream and influential historian. The narratives included in this text are told
from the perspective of the dominant American groups, i.e. Whites and males. In the second
half, students did the same with the text A People‘s History of the USA by Howard Zinn, a
revisionist and well-known historian while comparing the content and writing styles between
the two authors. Materials covered in the text by Zinn are subjugated knowledge as history in
this text is written from bottom-up through the lenses of marginalized people such as the
Black, Native Americans, and women. The themes covered in the semester included the
depiction of Christopher Columbus and the discovery of America, the Indians, the slavery
system in America, the American revolution and the role of women in colonial America.
Towards the end of the semester, the students were allowed to choose one of the themes and
write a paper for their final assignment. The task involved the comparison and contrast
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between the two authors (i.e. Alan Brinkley and Howard Zinn) with regard to their ways in
the depiction of personalities/people and events covered in the semester. After being collected
and graded, the papers were analyzed to identify evidence of critiques from students.
3.1. Participants and object of study
Participants in the study were 32 junior students taking the course of The U.S History in the
second semester of the fiscal year 2019-2020. The objects of this study are students‘
participation in classroom activities and reflection indicated in their final papers.
3.2. Data collection procedure
Data in this study, which is descriptive in nature, was collected between March and August,
2020. The procedure was divided into two phases with the first one being reserved for
classroom observation (from March 2020 to June 2020) and the second one for text analysis
(from late-July to mid-August 2020). During the first phase, notes were taken in class sessions
with regard to the impact of the experimental education model on students‘ engagement in
classroom activities and discussions as well as the fashions in which they carried out their
learning process. The second phase involved the collection and analysis of students‘ final
assignments for evidence of reflection after the intervention. More specifically, details of
comparison, contrast and critique by students in the papers were identified for analysis. To
ensure confidentiality, students participating in the research are referred to in this paper with
their initials.
4. Findings
4.1. The impacts of the experimental education model on students‟ engagement in
classroom activities
At the beginning of the semester, students were required to form 10 groups to be responsible
for the synthesis, presentation and discussion of 10 topics from the two textbooks. The
instructor only gave the topics and left the rest for students to make their own decision. This
was carried out without any intervention from the instructor with the purpose of giving
students more agency with regard to whom they wanted to work with and what they wished to
work on.
Observations in class indicate that students were a lot more active and really took control of
the activities in the classroom. For this particular course, the instructor always entered the
classroom through the backdoor, and sat in the back row with other students, leaving the front
for those (students) who were in charge for each class session. Students, with the self-
assigned tasks, presented the materials, conducted the discussion and gave critique to each
other‘s ideas. Students also manifested a much higher level of concentration to their peers‘
performance.
The amount of time allocated for these activities was pretty balanced, and the manner in
which these activities were carried out was various, especially in the discussion session. Each
leading group usually divided the class into smaller groups and gave them discussion
questions. Sometimes, the leaders allowed students to form discussion groups on their own.
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The instructor only engaged in the final stage to wrap up the session, mostly by synthesizing
the materials and students‘ ideas, and giving feedback on students‘ performance. However,
there were also occasions when the instructor had to intervene when discussion came to a halt
due to students‘ lack of ideas or leaders‘ failure to engage their peers.
4.2. The impacts of the experimental education model on students‟ ability to provide
critiques and reflect attitudes
Results from paper analysis
Table 4.2:
No. of students
Topic
No. of Instances of
comparison and
Contrast
No. of Instances No. of Instances
choosing the topic
of critiques
of attitudes
Slavery system
Roles of women
12
5
20
5
7
3
2
4
1
1
Christopher
Columbus
4
4
The Indians
(Native
3
3
0
0
Americans)
The American
Revolution
6
1
1
6
1
1
3
1
1
2
1
1
The American
Civil War
The Vietnam War
For the final assignment, students were allowed to choose a topic of their interest about
American History. In particular, students were requested to make a comparison and contrast
between Alan Brinkley and Howard Zinn in the depiction of the event or personality
incorporated in the topic and draw a conclusion for themselves. The results from Table 4.2
reveal that the slavery system in the U.S was the most popular topic with 12 students opting to
write about it. This was followed by the American Revolution, the roles of women and
Christopher Columbus with 6,5, and 4 students picking them respectively. Meanwhile, the
number of students who chose the American Civil War and Vietnam War was the same, with
only 1 for both topics.
The data also show that all students, except for the one who chose to write about Indian-
Americans, fulfilled the requirements to compare and contrast, critique and express their
attitudes about the event/personality.
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Closer examination indicates that evidence of in-depth analysis of the texts was found in most
students‘ papers prior to their conclusion on a particular issue. For instance, over the topic of
slavery system, one student wrote, ―Besides [sic] the same views, the difference in the
arguments of Brinkley and Zinn stand out more. First, while Alan Brinkley wanted to amend
the traditional narrative of American history, Howard Zinn had revealed the truth about the
abuse and greed of the government in history‖ (L.H.B.C - student assignment submitted
online on July 17, 2020). This is an example of how students were informed and their outlook
could be changed thanks to being exposed to different bodies of knowledge. In this particular
example, the students used the phrase ‗revealed the truth‘ (in bold) to talk about not only
another version of truth but also his/her recognition of this version of truth.
Some students even went far and beyond the requirements to provide a critique of the
authors‘ writing styles, as illustrated in this excerpt, ―Brinkley tended to structure his content
by placing them under headings. By doing so, he intentionally shaped how readers would
[sic] view of a particular event or issue. [...] This made his pieces of writing quite subjective,
one-sided, imposing and opinionated when mentioning women.‖ (T.K.M, student assignment
submitted online on July 17, 2020). The student juxtaposed this with ―[t]his contrasts sharply
with Zinn, who wrote his book in general and the way he referred to women in particular was
in an unbiased manner using a host of sources to back up his arguments (T.K.M, student
assignment submitted online on July 17, 2020). Through the comparison and critique of the
authors‘ writing styles in their portrayal of women in colonial USA, the student indirectly
expressed his/her preference (i.e. his/her attitude) towards the version penned by Howard
Zinn.
Ultimately, the target of the assignment was to encourage students to draw their own
conclusions about the chosen topic. Analysis of their papers indicate that the majority of
students appreciated the multi-faceted knowledge provided by the combination of both texts,
claiming this gave them a more well-rounded understanding of the historical event/figure. For
instance, as the student reflected upon the analysis of the American Revolution depicted in the
two textbooks, this was found, ―Both Howard Zinn and Alan Brinkley brought out many
aspects in the American Revolution with the similarities or [sic] the differences views. But
[sic] all really interesting and [sic] meaning for us. All [sic] views of two authors convey
more valuable knowledge about the United States of America history‖ (Đ.T.Q.N, student
assignment submitted online on July 17, 2020). Another student who chose to write about the
depiction of Christopher Columbus wrote, ―Columbus was neither a demon nor a saint. His
characteristics were positive and some rather negative. [...] However, good or bad, Columbus
created a bridge between the old and new world‖ (L.H.Đ, student assignment submitted
online on July 17, 2020). Such examples reflect the effect of subjugated knowledge on
students‘ perception and understanding of the nature of knowledge.
There were also instances in which students delved into the authors‘ background to provide an
explanation for the authors‘ stance and attitudes prior to drawing a conclusion of their own
although the proportion of those who could do this was marginal. One student wrote,
―However, it appears to me that due to the fact that Zinn is a Jewish, a group of people who
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suffered a troubled past, his way of writing seemed to be friendlier and more sympathetic
towards the marginalized people, including women. Personally, Zinn‘s pieces of writing made
me realize that there are unknown facets which may not be consistent with [sic] the
mainstream history, as opposed to Brinkley who tended to summarize facts and events.
Therefore, Zinn‘s book is more intended to and for the people of the United States‖ (T. K. M,
student assignment submitted online on July 17, 2020). In this particular example, the
student‘s performance was up to a whole new level when s/he was able to demonstrate the
reasons behind his/her attitude towards a text (a body of knowledge).
5. Discussion and implications
From the findings from classroom observations, it can be inferred that the experimental
education model did exert positive impacts on the classroom dynamics. As students had few
constraints regarding the organization of class activities, they were empowered and more
aware of their active role in their own learning process as well as the education environment
in which they participated. Moreover, the fact that the instructor sat in the back row mingling
with other students did alleviate the pressure of being under surveillance from students. In
other words, this practice allowed students to have more freedom in conducting their own
learning process, which ultimately results in more autonomy from their part. Applied this
way, two initial criteria of the education model inspired by Foucault - freedom and awareness-
were achieved. The higher level of concentration observed in class can be understood as
active learning among the students which included learning the material and their peers‘ ways
of navigating in class. Ultimately, students are recognized as ethical beings capable of
demonstrating reflection, decision-making and responsibility for their identity and their social
relations. Difficulties encountered by students during the process were observed, with tackling
long texts and finalizing the research questions being the most obvious. However, those were
overcome as students proceeded further into the semester and assistance was provided by the
instructor.
With regard to students‘ choice of topics for their final assignment, statistics speak volume
about the impact of subjugated knowledge on students‘ motivation to explore and study. As
the fashion in which these themes (i.e. the American slavery system, the American
Revolution, the roles of women and Christopher Columbus) are executed in the texts reflects
the most distinctive differences between the two authors, students‘ curiosity to explore the
themes further was triggered. In other words, it was in these themes that the stark contrast
between the two versions of the American history was found, which could be used to explain
students‘ preference over these topics. The timing of the application of this experimental
education model was reasonable since the students in this class were all junior college
students who had already undergone 4 semesters prior to this and had acquired a decent
amount of knowledge in their major. Hence, ‗unlearning‘ (Foucault, 1980) was possible.
Results from in-depth analysis of students‘ papers show that the majority of students were
able to provide critiques towards the texts and the manner in which those texts depict
historical events or figures. This is an indication of initial success in the application of the
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experimental education model based on subjugated knowledge because students were able to
not only synthesize the materials but also reflect upon the historical event/figure of their
choice. Inherent in this is their recognition that one‘s background can have pivotal impacts on
how one perceives and portrays reality, and along the way, creates knowledge. As a result,
knowledge (and epistemology) should be contested and should not be taken as it is. This can
also be understood as an indication of how students‘ awareness about themselves and their
relationship to others is enhanced and reflected.
The preliminary results of this research have significant implications in the teaching and
learning process, especially in the humanities and social sciences. As educators, teachers
should be aware of the fact that teaching and learning is not just a process of transferring and
acquiring knowledge, rather it is a process of transforming, contesting and dismantling the
sedimented epistemology. As a result, teaching should not be restricted in reinforcing norms
and power hierarchy; rather, it should be geared towards fostering changes in students‘
perceptions and outlook. In order to achieve that goal, teachers should be open, and
proactively seek and incorporate other bodies of knowledge into the curriculum; which can be
translated as giving more power to both teachers and students in the classroom.
Students should be aware of the multi-faceted nature of knowledge as well as their active role
in their own learning process. Hence, establishing a practice of questioning the validity of
knowledge/information, examining different perspectives and delving in the quest of truth
should be instilled in them from early on. Students can look for other sources of knowledge
and information in their self-studying process or with the help of their instructors.
6. Conclusion
The study was undertaken with the aim of evaluating the impact of subjugated knowledge on
students‘ performance in class and on their perception of knowledge in general. The
researcher deployed a combination of classroom observation and text analysis for data
collection. Ultimately, it seeks the answer to the question: What are the potentials of
subjugated knowledge in teaching and learning; and particularly, what is the role of
subjugated knowledge in shaping students‘ outlook?
Findings reveal that the experimental education model was relatively effective in bringing
about a healthy learning environment in which freedom, awareness and critique are ensured
and encouraged. As a result, students were a lot more proactive and confident in their learning
process with clear evidence of their initiatives in all stages throughout the semester. The
application of the tenets in Foucault‘s philosophy of subjugated knowledge also resulted in
students‘ recognition of the multi-faceted nature of knowledge, which was reflected in the
analysis of students‘ final papers. More importantly, students have come to realize that there
are other bodies of knowledge and the possibilities of understanding the past differently,
which can result in social justice.
In conclusion, the classroom dynamics and students‘ learning outcomes have shown positive
transformation owing to the exposure of students to a body of subjugated knowledge in the
history of the United States of America. This revelation is of great significance in fostering
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changes in teachers‘ pedagogical practice and students‘ learning approach. Although further
endeavors could be carried out for more data, especially those on students‘ response towards
the application of the experimental education model, initial feedback constitutes affirmation
about the validity of this application.
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Read Differently. Symploke, 12(1/2), 232-247.
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Kỷ yếu điện tử Hội thảo Quốc gia Nghiên cứu liên ngành về Ngôn ngữ và Giảng dạy
ngôn ngữ lần thứ VI
KIẾN THỨC PHI CHÍNH THỐNG VÀ TIỀM NĂNG THAY ĐỔI THÁI
ĐỘ VÀ THẾ GIỚI QUAN CỦA NGƢỜI HỌC: NGHIÊN CỨU Ở MỘT
LỚP HỌC LỊCH SỬ HOA KỲ
Tóm tắt
Khái niệm kiến thức phi chính thống do Foucault (1980) đề xuất đã đƣợc nhiều nhà giáo
dục và học giả nghiên cứu và ứng dụng rộng rãi trong nhiều chuyên ngành và lĩnh vực
khác nhau nhằm tạo nên một phƣơng pháp giáo dục đề cao tính đa diện của kiến thức
đồng thời thách thức sự thống trị của khoa học luận chính thống. Bài báo trình bày kết
quả sơ bộ của một nghiên cứu thực nghiệm sử dụng kiến thức phi chính thống trong nỗ
lực nhằm khuyến khích ngƣời học suy nghĩ khác biệt và hoài nghi về thực tế đƣợc xây
dựng trong các sách giáo khoa lịch sử chính thống của Hoa Kỳ. Kết quả cho thấy mặc dù
có nhiều trở ngại ban đầu trong việc làm quen với các khái niệm mới, ngƣời học rất hào
hứng và tích cực trong suốt quá trình học tập. Bên cạnh đó, các dấu hiệu về sự thay đổi
trong cách nhìn nhận về lịch sử của ngƣời học (dù còn khá khiêm tốn) đã đƣợc thể hiện
trong bài tập cuối kỳ của sinh viên.
Từ khóa
kiến thức phi chính thống, thái độ, suy nghĩ khác biệt, khoa học luận, lịch sử.
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