Efficacy of white rice-based diets in nursery pigs
10
Nong Lam University, Ho Chi Minh City
Efficacy of white rice-based diets in nursery pigs
Che Minh Tung and Nguyen Thi My Nhan
Department of Animal Production, Nong Lam University, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
ARTICLE INFO
Review Paper
ABSTRACT
Rice is a staple cereal consumed by much of the world’s popu-
lation but has received relatively little attention as a potential
feedstuff for the animal industries in many parts of the world.
It may be because its price is relatively high and only a small
amount of rice produced is traded (6.2%). India, Thailand and
Vietnam play a major role in the world rice export market. Rice
is characterized by its high starch content, low fat and dietary
fiber content, and lower crude protein content in comparison to
other cereals. Rice-based diets have a higher apparent digestibil-
ity of nutrients than corn-based diets. Complete replacement of
corn with rice in weaned pig diets does not affect growth per-
formance, but feed efficiency is improved when corn is replaced
with brown rice. Heat processing of rice does not influence di-
gestibility and growth performance of pigs. Due to rice’s high
digestibility and low fiber content, pigs fed rice-based diets have
lower concentrations of volatile fatty acids and viscosity of intesti-
nal digesta compared to other cereal-based diets. Moreover, rice
has been shown to have potential to ameliorate diarrhea, colo-
nization of pathogens, severity of enteric bacterial diseases, and
pig removals. The mechanism for this protective function is not
fully understood, but it may be, to a certain extent, related to
lower fiber content and high digestibility of rice and a so-called
“rice factor”. In practice, when availability and cost of rice per-
mits, pork producers can benefit from the use of rice-based diets
for piglets.
Recieved: March 24, 2018
Accepted: May 31, 2018
Keywords
Cereals and rice
Digestibility
Growth performance
Health
Nursery pigs
Corresponding author
Che Minh Tung
Email: tung.cheminh@hcmuaf.edu.vn
1. Introduction
ishna et al., 2000; Gregorio et al., 2016) and ani-
mals (Hampson et al., 2001).
Rice is a staple cereal consumed by much of the
world’s population, and a plethora of studies exist
investigating the physical and chemical proper-
ties of cooked rice for man. Most of these studies
relate to the starch properties of rice, presum-
ably because starch constitutes more than 75%
of rice’s composition (Pluske et al., 2007; Stein
et al., 2016), and hence forms the major carbo-
hydrate consumed. The high starch content of
cooked rice coupled with a very low non-starch
polysaccharide (NSP) level makes cooked rice a
ready source of absorbable glucose, and hence en-
ergy, for the human population. More recently,
there is interest in the use of rice-based oral re-
hydration formulas for controlling enteric diseases
in children (Iyngkaran and Yadav, 1998; Ramakr-
In contrast, there is less information pertain-
ing to the feeding of rice to animals, especially
the pig, with respect to effects on production
and intestinal “health”, which incorporates en-
teric disease. This is predominately because other
cereal sources, such as wheat, barley, corn, and
sorghum, are used in pig production and can be
fed to pigs cheaper than rice. Nevertheless, given
the information available from the human liter-
ature with respect to the cooking and milling
properties of rice, potential exists for the use
of processed (cooked) rice in certain diets for
pigs, especially the young pig. This is particularly
when the intestine is compromised by enteric
pathogens such as Escherichia coli, the agent
of post-weaning colibacillosis (PWC) or, as it is
Journal of Agriculture and Development, Volume 17 - Issue 3
Nong Lam University, Ho Chi Minh City
11
more commonly recognized, post-weaning diar- tract by providing different substrates for micro-
rhea (PWD). Incorporation of processed rice into bial activity (Jensen and Jorgensen, 1994; Bach
such diets has potential to add value to the world Knudsen et al., 2012). Unfortunately, there are
rice industry and reduce the pig industry’s re- few reliable data to support intelligent selection
liance on the use of growth promoting antibiotics. of the most appropriate cereals for the health of
Furthermore, spin-offs into the biomedical field in young pigs. Oat, wheat, and barley are ingredi-
the control of human enteric pathogens may be ents with high content of non-starch polysaccha-
possible.
rides which can stimulate the growth of commen-
sal gut flora (Bach Knudsen, 1991), leading to a
healthy digestive tract. In other words, studies
of McDonald et al. (1999 and 2001), Hopwood
et al. (2004), and Mateos et al. (2006) indicate
benefits of rice, which contains almost no fiber.
Apparently, more information is needed on both
the practical and physiological effects of various
cereal grains in the diet of young pigs.
Antimicrobial agents are presently the main
tool used for control of PWD, and are provided
to pigs to treat overt disease, to provide prophy-
laxis in situations where disease is liable to occur,
and to improve growth rates in the absence of
disease. However, problems are arising over the
use of antimicrobials in the pig industry. Their
long-term use eventually selects for the survival
of resistant bacterial species or strains, and genes
The aim of this paper is to review the
encoding this resistance also can be transferred effects of rice-based diets on growth perfor-
to other formerly susceptible bacteria. Currently, mance, digestibility, gastrointestinal parameters,
a variety of bacterial pathogens of pigs are show- and health of weaned pigs in comparison to other
ing resistance to a range of antimicrobial drugs. cereal-based diets.
Not only is this reducing the number of antimi-
crobials available to control bacterial diseases in 2. Global Rice Production and Trade
pigs, but this resistance also poses risks to human
health. Risks include the transfer of multidrug re-
Rice is widely grown all over the world and
sistant zoonotic pathogens (e.g., Salmonella spp. a staple food for humans. Approximately 673.8
and Campylobacter spp.) from pigs to humans, million metric tons (MMT) of rice are produced
the direct or indirect transfer of resistance genes annually in the world, with overwhelming ma-
from the porcine intestinal microflora to human jority of this entering the human food markets.
bacterial strains, and the presence of antimicro- Only about 6.2% of rice produced is traded in the
bial drug residues in pig meat (Hampson et al., global markets. As with most crops, China has a
2001). Public concern about these issues is lead- major role in rice production and use, but a minor
ing to reduced availability or the complete ban- role in trade. In the 2016 marketing year China
ning of certain antimicrobial agents for use in accounted for 31.0% of world production of 673.8
of Europe. Although there are currently no to- is India, with a total production of 165.2 MMT
tal bans on the use of growth promoting antibi- in 2016. It may be surprising that India is now
otics in the Vietnam pig industry, it is imperative emerging as the world’s largest rice exporter with
to develop alternative means, such as the use of an amount of 10.1 MMT. With a large popula-
nutrition, both of controlling bacterial infections tion, strong economic growth and internal food
and promoting growth in pigs without recourse price pressures, China could quickly disappear
to the use of antimicrobials.
from the rice export market. In contrast, Thai-
land and Vietnam, though with smaller amounts
of rice production as compared to China, play a
major role in the world rice export market. The
second largest rice exporter is Thailand at 9.9
MMT for 2016. Vietnam is the third rice exporter
at 6.1 MMT, 15.8% of the world total in 2016.
Swine rations usually contain a large amount of
cereal grains such as corn, barley, wheat, oat, and
rice. Among these ingredients, corn is the cereal
grain preferred by most pork producers in Viet-
nam and many regions of the world. However,
other cereal grains may be considered, at times,
due to their lowered costs or their positive effects
Most of the current price problems are related
on growth performance and health of young pigs. to exporters withdrawing supplies from the mar-
Cereal grains have different carbohydrate compo- ket and the general rise in all commodity prices.
sition which may affect the health of the digestive The longer-term structural question of who will
Journal of Agriculture and Development, Volume 17 - Issue 3
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Nong Lam University, Ho Chi Minh City
produce rice for international markets will con- have higher lipid content than white rice.
tinue to influence market prices for years to come.
It appears that India, Thailand and Vietnam are
content, rice might be a good alternative to other
more committed to export markets.
Because of its low fiber content and high starch
cereals in the pig’s diet immediately after wean-
ing. It may have a major impact on the digestibil-
ity of dietary nutrients and the microbial popula-
tions through providing fewer substrates for bac-
3. Chemical Composition of Rice
terial fermentation in the intestinal tract (Pluske
Rice is characterized by its high starch con-
et al, 2003; Montagne et al, 2004; Vicente et al,
tent, low fat and dietary fiber content, and lower
2008). This in turn may prevent the proliferation
crude protein content in comparison to other ce-
of pathogenic bacteria. The interaction between
the components of diet (e.g. fiber) and the devel-
8.6%) is comparable to corn (8.1%), even with a
opment of intestinal bacteria and gut is complex.
better balanced essential amino acid profile (Fig-
Thus, a rice-based diet does have an important
role to play in intestinal disease and health of
higher concentration of essential amino acids, ex-
young pigs.
cept for histidine and leucine, than corn. Piao et
al. (2002) and Li et al. (2002), however, found
that the balance between isoleucine and leucine
4. Effects on Growth Performance
is better in brown rice than that in corn. Barley
(10.8%), oat (11.3%), and wheat (14.0%) have a
ing diets for pigs has been conducted by several
greater content of crude protein than corn and
rice.
Replacement of other cereals with rice in wean-
researchers, but most of the research has focused
on comparing the effect of substituting rice for
corn in the weaned pig’s diet. In a series of exper-
iments carried out at the same commercial farm
testing whether corn, barley, rolled oat, or rice
as the main energy source in the diet for weaned
pigs affects growth performance, Che et al. (2012)
reported that average daily gain (ADG) of pigs
fed the rice diet was significantly higher than
that of pigs fed barley or rolled oat diets, but
not different from that of pigs fed the corn diet
seen among the treatment diets. Average daily
Figure 1. Essential amino acids in corn and white
rice. Data from: Bach Knudsen (1997); Kim et al.
feed intake (ADFI) of pigs fed corn, rolled oat,
and rice diets were similar, but was significantly
higher than that of pigs fed barley diet. In the
second experiment, Che et al. (2012) investigated
(2007); Che et al. (2012).
Apart from high contents of crude protein,
other cereals also contain a considerable amount
of total dietary fiber (¿ 9.0%) which is much
trast, rice contains a significantly higher level of
starch (75.3-87.4%) than other cereals. Regarding
the energy content, rice has a higher level (3.54
Mcal/kg) of metabolizable energy (ME) than bar-
ley, oat, and wheat. In comparison to corn, al-
though both rice and corn have the same gross
energy content (Li et al., 2002; Vicente et al.,
2008), the ME of rice is lightly greater than that
of corn. The higher ME content of rice might be
resulted from its higher digestibility. In addition,
other cereals, particularly barley, oat and corn,
effects of complete replacement of corn with rice
in diets and length of rice feeding on growth per-
showed that there were no significant differences
in ADG, ADFI, and F/G. This suggests that rice
can substitute for corn in the diet for weaned pigs,
reared under commercial conditions, without af-
fecting the growth performance of pigs.
However, with studies conducted at the univer-
sity research farms, better performance of weaned
pigs has been often reported. Mateos et al. (2006)
showed that pigs fed the cooked-rice diet grew
faster (12.3%) than those fed the cooked-corn
diet. In another experiment using brown rice, Li
Journal of Agriculture and Development, Volume 17 - Issue 3
Nong Lam University, Ho Chi Minh City
13
Table 1. Top paddy rice producers-2016 and rice exporting countries worldwide in 2016
Amount
Million metric ton
Amount
Million metric ton
Producers
Exporters
%
31.0
24.5
10.8
7.7
6.5
4.8
4.2
2.7
1.6
1.6
1.5
1.5
1.5
100.0
%
24.3
23.9
14.7
9.6
8.0
3.4
2.9
2.2
1.4
1.2
8.4
China
India
208.7
165.2
72.7
52.1
43.6
32.6
28.6
18.5
10.7
10.6
10.3
10.2
10.0
673.8
India
Thailand
Vietnam
Pakistan
USA
Myanmar
Cambodia
Uruguay
Brazil
10.1
9.9
6.1
4.0
3.3
1.4
1.2
0.9
0.6
0.5
3.5
Indonesia
Bangladesh
Vietnam
Thailand
Myanmar
Philippines
Japan
Brazil
Pakistan
USA
Argentina
Others
Cambodia
World total
Data from FAO (2017).
41.5
100.0
Table 2. Chemical composition of cereal grains (as fed)
Barley1 Oat1 Wheat1 Corn3
Rice2
8.1
Rice3
8.6
2.4
n.a.
n.a.
1.1
Protein, %
Ether extract, %
Starch, %
Dietary fiber, %
Ash, %
10.8
3.0
49.7
18.8
4.1
11.3
4.0
40.1
22.8
2.6
14.0
1.1
57.6
9.8
2.0
3.30
8.1
2.9
62.1
9.5
1.4
3.39
0.9
75.3-87.4
1.2
0.5
ME, Mcal/kg
1Stein et al. (2016).
2.91
2.60
3.54
n.a.
2Pluske et al. (2007); Stein et al. (2016).
3n.a.: not available; Li et al. (2002).
Table 3. Effects of cereals on growth performance of pigs from d 0 to 42 post-weaning1
Dietary treatments
Experiment 1
Corn
331a
495a
1.49
Barley
307c
Rolled oat
323bc
Rice
337a
504a
1.49
ADG, g
ADFI, g
F:G, g/g
462b
1.49
489a
1.52
Dietary treatments2
Experiment 2
Corn (6 wk) Rice (1 wk) Rice (2 wk)
Rice (4 wk)
307
446
ADG, g
ADFI, g
F:G, g/g
307
455
1.35
315
459
1.33
318
468
1.33
1.33
112 pens of 21 pigs/treatment. Data from Che et al. (2012).
2Pigs were fed rice diets for 1, 2 or 4 weeks and then on a corn diet until the end of experiment.
a-cMeans within a row with different superscripts differ (P < 0.05).
et al. (2002) found that 50% or complete replace- improved the feed efficiency. In comparison to
ment of corn with brown rice in nursery diets wheat, pigs fed rice-based diets from 46-63 days of
Journal of Agriculture and Development, Volume 17 - Issue 3
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Nong Lam University, Ho Chi Minh City
age, regardless of low or high dietary protein, ate significant decrease in pH of distal colon and feces
more, gained faster, and had better feed efficiency compared to pigs fed the rice-based diet (Table
al., 2003).
gesta pH in duodenum and ileum of pigs among
the treatments. It is obvious that a diet contain-
ing high fiber ingredients, like barley, increases
the pH in the large intestine via providing fer-
mentable substrates to the microbial activity as
compared to the rice-based diet. In another ex-
periment, different types of fiber such as high-
amylose corn starch, lupin isolate, or a combina-
tion of both included in a rice-based diet reduced
the digesta pH in cecum, proximal colon, and dis-
sulted in a numerically higher pH in the large
intestine as compared to a wheat-based commer-
cial diet (Pluske et al., 2003). The inclusion of
animal or plant protein in a rice-based diet also
significantly influenced the digesta pH of the large
intestine. The rice diet with animal protein had a
higher cecum and colon pH than that with plant
protein.
Rice has a high level of starch, thus gelatiniza-
tion of the starch portion of the grains might
improve nutrient utilization and thereby result-
ing in a better growth performance. Vicente et
al (2008) evaluated effects of cooked-flaked corn,
raw-ground rice, cooked-ground rice, and cooked-
flaked rice on performance of weaned pigs for 28
pigs fed rice consumed more feed (678 vs. 618
g/d), grew faster (466 vs. 407 g/d), and tended
to have lower F/G than those fed corn. No differ-
ences in growth performance due to heat process-
ing of rice were observed. This suggests that heat
processing does not affect growth performance of
pigs fed rice-based diets.
5. Effects on Nutrient Digestibility
Rice-based diets have a higher apparent total
The increase in pH is likely to be because of
tract digestibility of nutrients than corn-based the increased pool of volatile fatty acid (VFA)
diets. Mateos et al. (2006) found that the di- through the high activity of microbial fermenta-
gestibility of GE, OM, DM, and fat was higher for tion in the large intestine. The rice-based diet had
agrees with the results of Li et al. (2002), Piao et ing levels of barley. It was further indicated that
al. (2002) and Vicente et al. (2008). It was also rice-based diets with inclusion of various types
shown that heat processing did not affect the di- of fiber sources produced different amounts of
was replaced with 50% or 100% of brown rice the production of VFA, McDonald et al., (2001)
in the diets. The corn-based diet had a signifi- added a viscous but unfermentable component,
cant lower apparent digestibility of dietary com- carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) to a rice-based
ponents than the brown rice-based diet or the diet. They found that no differences in concen-
diet with 50% replacement of corn. The higher tration of VFA of digesta in the large intestine of
digestibility of a rice-based diet would be likely pigs. The high level of fiber in the cereals, e.g. bar-
to explain the improved growth performance in
weaned pigs fed rice diets compared to corn di-
and decreased pH but also an increased viscosity.
ets. It is pointed out that fewer substrates for
bacterial fermentation might be resulted from a
els of barley resulted in an increase in viscosity
rice-based diet, but ileal digestibility of rice vs.
other cereal diets needs to be determined.
ley, caused not only an elevated total pool of VFA
The rice-based diets with different inclusion lev-
cosity in pigs fed the rice-based diet was lower
than that in those fed the barley-based diet or
the diet with the inclusion of 500 g/kg of bar-
6. Gastrointestinal Effects
ley. Hopwood et al. (2004) reported that the in-
take of non-starch polysaccharide was positively
fiber content, rice-based diets may greatly influ-
correlated with the viscosity of small intestinal
content of pigs. The viscosity of digesta is also
testinal environment. Hopwood et al. (2004) re-
dependent on, in addition to fiber sources, types
With high digestibility of nutrients and low
ence activity of microbial fermentation and in-
ported that the barley-based diet or the diet with
high inclusion level of barley fed to pigs caused a
of fiber combined in the diet. Addition of high-
Journal of Agriculture and Development, Volume 17 - Issue 3
Nong Lam University, Ho Chi Minh City
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Table 4. Effects of cereals and heating processing on performance of pigs from d 0
to 28 post-weaning1
Corn
Rice
Item
Cooked-flaked Raw-ground Cooked-ground Cooked-flaked
ADG, g2
ADFI, g2
F:G, g/g
407
618
1.52
459
680
1.49
482
680
1.41
456
672
1.47
18 pens of 5 pigs/treatment. Data from Vicente et al. (2008).
2Corn vs. mean of the 3 rice treatments (P < 0.01).
Table 5. Effects of cereals on total tract apparent digestibility of dietary components1
Cereal source
Item
Cooked rice
83.8a
Cooked corn
80.6b
DM, %
OM, %
GE, %
86.2a
82.9b
82.7a
79.0b
58.8b
72.9
Ether extract, %
CP, %
Starch, %
60.9a
72.9
99.2
99.4
18 pens of 4 pigs/treatment; Average of d 6 & 16 post-weaning. Data from Mateos et al. (2006).
a-bMeans within a row with different superscripts differ (P < 0.05).
Table 6. Effects of cereals and heat processing on apparent total tract digestibility of
dietary components1
Corn
Cooked-flaked
86.7a
Rice
Cooked-ground
88.8b
Item
Raw-ground
88.1b
Cooked-flaked
88.3b
DM, %
OM, %
GE, %
CP, %
88.6a
90.6b
91.1b
90.8b
86.5a
80.8
88.4b
80.9
89.3b
81.6
88.8b
81.0
18 pens of 5 pigs/treatment; Average of d 5, 14 & 28 post-weaning. Data from Vicente et al. (2008).
a-bMeans within a row with different superscripts differ (P < 0.05).
amylose corn starch and lupin isolate combined zyme supplementation. They showed that the fe-
to the rice-based diet greatly increased the vis- cal DM did not differ among dietary groups (Ta-
the inclusion of high-amylose corn starch or lupin score was different, with pigs receiving the rice-
isolate individually (Pluske et al., 2003).
only diet having firmer and better-formed feces
than pigs fed either of barley diets. Mateos et
al. (2006) reported that pigs fed the cooked-rice
diet had a lower diarrhea score than those fed the
7. Effects on Pig Health and Diarrhea
Rice, when compared to other cereals, has been cooked-corn diet. This indicates that under nor-
shown to reduce the diarrhea, intestinal colo- mal or disease conditions rice-based diets fed to
nization of pathogens, and the severity of en- pigs reduce the moisture content of feces. When
teric bacterial diseases when pigs were challenged pigs challenged with ETEC, the ADG for the ex-
with enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) or perimental period was negative for those pigs con-
Brachyspira pilosicoli. Hopwood et al. (2004) in- suming diets with barley, and positive for those
inclusion level of barley with or without NSP en- viscosity was also greater in infected pigs fed 500
Journal of Agriculture and Development, Volume 17 - Issue 3
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Nong Lam University, Ho Chi Minh City
Table 7. Digesta pH in various sections of the intestinal tract in pigs
fed rice-based diet with different levels of barley1
Rice:barley (g/kg)
Item2
703:0
5.7
497:250
5.9
275:500
5.7
0:750
5.8
Duodenum
Ileum
Distal colon
Feces
6.7
6.3
6.6
6.1
6.8a
6.6a
6.1b
5.7b
6.9a
6.9a
6.5b
6.4b
16 pigs/treatment; 210 d after weaning. Data from Hopwood et al. (2004).
a-bMeans within a row with different superscripts differ (P < 0.05).
Table 8. Digesta pH in different sections of the intestinal tract in pigs fed rice-based diets1
Diet
R+AP
7.1
R+HACS
7.1
R+LI
7.3
5.5bc
5.4b
6.0b
R+HACS+LI
Com
6.8
5.8ac
6.0a
7.0bc
Ileum
Cecum
Proximal colon
Distal colon
7.4
5.4b
5.3b
6.1b
6.2a
5.3b
6.3a
6.6a
5.2b
5.7b
16 pigs/treatment. Data from Pluske et al. (2003).
R=rice, AP=animal protein; HACS=high-amylose corn starch, LI=lupin isolate, Com=commercial diet containing wheat.
a-cMeans within a row with different superscripts differ (P < 0.05).
Table 9. Pools of VFA of digesta in the large intestine in pigs fed rice-based diets1
Diet
R+LI
15
VFA pool (mmol per pig)
R+AP
8
R+HACS
18
R+HACS+LI
12
Com
11
36bc
Cecum
Colon
19a
45b
45b
27ac
16 pigs/treatment. Data from Pluske et al. (2003).
R=rice, AP=animal protein; HACS=high-amylose corn starch, LI=lupin isolate, Com=commercial diet containing wheat.
a-cMeans within a row with different superscripts differ (P < 0.05).
g/kg of barley compared with those fed the rice- period of fecal excretion ranged from 1 to 25 days.
based diet. In another ETEC challenge study, The pigs fed the rice diet excreted Brachyspira
Montagne et al. (2004) showed that ileal and ce- pilosicoli for a significantly shorter period than
cal viscosity of pigs fed rice-based diets with an- those fed the standard diet containing wheat and
imal or plant protein was lower than that of pigs barley, regardless of diet forms. They also ob-
fed wheat-based diet with plant protein. In term served that a higher incidence of fecal excretion in
all the groups fed the standard diet was accom-
of intestinal colonization of pathogens, culture of
panied by a significantly higher number of pigs
mucosal scrapings revealed greater proliferation
showing clinical signs of disease compared to the
of ETEC within the small and large intestines
pigs fed the rice diet. A similar protective effect
of pigs consuming diets containing barley than
of rice-based diets has been seen in pigs experi-
mentally infected with the intestinal spirochete
dition, the ETEC were more dominant within the
Brachyspira hyodysenteriae, the agent of swine
dysentery (Pluske et al., 1996) and Brachyspira
pilosicoli, the agent of porcine intestinal spiro-
microbiota of pigs eating barley compared with
that within pigs eating rice. At each of the intesti-
nal sites swabbed there were more ETEC on the
chetosis (Hampson et al., 2000). The protective
culture plates from pigs eating the barley diets
compared with those not receiving barley. With effect of such a diet against bacterial infection
Brachyspira pilosicoli inoculation (Figure 3), the has been attributed in part to the high digestibil-
Journal of Agriculture and Development, Volume 17 - Issue 3
Nong Lam University, Ho Chi Minh City
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Figure 2. Viscosity of intestinal contents of pigs fed rice-based diets containing different levels of pearl
barley. 6 pigs/treatments; 10 d after weaning. Bars with different superscripts differ (P < 0.05). Data from
Hopwood et al. (2004).
Table 10. Fecal dry matter and consistency score in weaned pigs infected with enterotoxigenic
Escherichia coli and fed different diets
Rice:barley, g/kg1
275:500
Item
703:0
275:500 + Enzyme
Fecal DM (g/kg)
Over 6d post-weaning
Post-infection
304
301
295
292
299
277
Fecal consistency score2
Pre-infection
Post-infection
1.5
2.9a
1.8
3.6b
1.7
3.7b
1n=11, 13, & 12 for 0, 500, & 500+NSP Enzyme groups, respectively. Data from Hopwood et al. (2004).
2Score 0-5.
a-bMeans within a row with different superscripts differ (P < 0.05).
Table 11. Growth and digesta viscosity of weaner pigs killed 3-4 d after infection with
enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli
Rice:barley, g/kg1
Item
703:0
10.5
275:500
-7.8
275:500 + Enzyme
-27.0
Gain, g/d
Viscosity, mpa.s
Duodenum
Ileum
1.8
1.6a
1.7
2.1
2.3b
2.2
2.6
2.2ab
2.6
Small intestine
1n=11, 13, & 12 for 0, 500, & 500+NSP Enzyme groups, respectively. Data from Hopwood et al. (2004).
a-bMeans within a row with different superscripts differ (P < 0.05).
Journal of Agriculture and Development, Volume 17 - Issue 3
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Nong Lam University, Ho Chi Minh City
Table 12. Proportion of β-hemolytic enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) cultured from intestinal
swabs in weaner pigs infected with ETEC and fed different diets
Rice:barley, g/kg1
Item
703:0
275:500
275:500 + Enzyme
Viable CFU/g (log10)2
Mid-small intestine
Proximal colon
ETEC (%), intestinal swabs
Duodenum
Ileum
Cecum
Feces
1.0a
2.3a
4.1b
5.2b
3.5b
6.0b
7.5
22.1
47.6b
53.2b
44.5
26.5
11.0a
16.5a
27.9
21.4ab
53.0b
38.8
1n=11, 13, & 12 for 0, 500, & 500+NSP Enzyme groups, respectively. Data from Hopwood et al. (2004).
a-bMeans within a row with different superscripts differ (P < 0.05).
incompletely developed and may not be capable
of absorbing enough fluid to prevent clinical di-
arrhea and dehydration. A component of boiled
white rice recently identified and named the rice
factor has been shown to block the secretory re-
sponse of intestinal crypt cells to cAMP in guinea
pigs (MacLeod et al., 1995; Mathews et al., 1999).
A potential effect of this rice factor has not been
demonstrated in other animal species; however,
boiled rice has been used for many years in the
treatment of diarrhea in humans and is included
in various oral rehydration products (Gregorio et
Figure 3. Fecal excretion of Brachyspira pilosicoli
al., 2016).
by pigs fed various diets and infected experimentally
The reduction in diarrhea and intestinal colo-
nization of enteric pathogens may help prevent
infections and improve the pig health. In a se-
ries of experiment conducted by Che et al. (2012)
at the same commercial pig farm, feeding rice-
based diets to weaned pigs significantly reduced
the pig removal by half, even when pigs were
fed rice diets for only one week immediately af-
al. (2003) showed that the number of antibiotic
treatments of pigs was also reduced in pigs fed
the rice-only diet compared to a commercial diet
and rice-based diets with the inclusion of various
fiber sources. Obviously, feeding a rice-based diet
improves pig health with evidence of reduced pig
removal and number of antibiotic treatment.
in 2 trials. STD=standard diet containing barley
and wheat, FLF=fermented liquid feed, LAC=STD
+ lactic acid, PEL=pelleted STD; 6 pigs/treatment.
Adapted from Lindecrona et al. (2004).
ity of its protein and carbohydrates (Siba et al.,
1996; Pluske et al., 1998). In piglets, it is generally
thought that diets containing less fiber and highly
digestible ingredients, thereby limiting the quan-
tity of fermentable substrates entering the large
intestine, are associated with a decrease in the
incidence of PWC (Montagne et al., 2003). Such
diets may result in less accumulation of potential
bacterial substrate in the upper small intestine,
the primary site of proliferation of the pathogenic
E. coli causing PWC (Francis, 2002).
One of the primary mechanisms by which
toxin-producing bacteria, such as E. coli or
Salmonella, initiate secretory diarrhea is the in-
crease of water secretion by the small intestinal
crypt cells, by a pathway involving cAMP (Keely
et al., 2009). In young pigs, the large intestine is
8. Conclusions
Rice, widely grown over the world, is a highly
digestible ingredient and has high potential to be
a good feed ingredient for animals. Rice can sub-
stitute for corn in diets for weaned pigs without
Journal of Agriculture and Development, Volume 17 - Issue 3
Nong Lam University, Ho Chi Minh City
19
Figure 4. Effect of different cereal-based diets on pig removals 6 weeks post-weaning. (A) Pigs fed diets
with different cereals as a main source of energy for 6 weeks post-weaning. (B) Pigs fed corn-based diets for
6 weeks or rice-based diets for 1 (Rice-1), 2 (Rice-2) or 4 (Rice-3) weeks post-weaning. (C) Effects of
feeding rice with 0 (Rice-0%), 50 (Rice-50%), 75 (Rice-75%), and 100% (Rice-100%) replacement of corn in
diets for 1 week on the overall pig removal over 6 weeks post-weaning. 252 pigs/treatment. a-bMeans with
different superscript letters within each experiment differ (P < 0.05). Data from Che et al. (2012).
affecting the pig’s performance. The rice-based References
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